Memory

Short-Term or Working Memory

Short term memory is a storage system that can hold a limited amount of information for a few seconds. It is the part of memory in which information that is currently being thought about is stored. When we stop thinking about something, it disappears from our short-term memory. Another term for short term memory is working memory.

Rehearsal

One way to hold information in working memory is to think about it or say it over and over. You have probably used this strategy to remember a phone number short time. This process of maintaining an item in working memory by repetition is called rehearsal. . Without rehearsal, items will probably not stay in working memory for more than about 30 second. Teachers must allocate time for rehearsal during classroom lessons. Teaching too much information too rapidly is likely to be ineffective, because unless students are given time to mentally rehearse each new piece of information, later information is likely to drive it out of their working memory.

Facilitating Memory: organizing material into familiar patterns can help students remember, concepts and vocabulary. For example, to help young students remember the names of different animals you could help students to categorize them into pets, zoo animals and farm animals.

Individuals differ, of course, in the capacity of their working memories to accomplish a given learning task. One of the main factors in enhancing this capacity is the background knowledge. The more a person knows about something, the better able the person is to organize and absorb new information.

Long-term memory: The components of memory in which large amounts of information can be stored for long periods of time. We may never forget information on long term memory, so it is also called as permanent memory.

Parts of Long Term Memory

· Episodic memory: stores images of our personal experiences.

o   Flashbulb memory: Important events that are fixed mainly in visual and auditory memory. Who were you with on 9/11

· Semantic memory: stores facts and general knowledge.

o   Schema and schemata is used to describe networks of concepts that individuals have in their memories that enable them to understand and incorporate new information. A schema is like an outline, with different concepts or ideas grouped under larger categories.

·Procedural memory: stores information about how to do things. Exp: even if you have not ridden a bicycle for a long time, as soon as you get on one, the stimuli begin to evoke response.

Instructional strategies that actively involve students in lessons contribute to long- term retention

Information Processing Models

Levels-of-processing theory: Explanation of memory that links recall of a stimulus with the amount of mental processing it receives

Dual Code Theory:  A concept that is related to levels-of-processing theory is Paivio's dual code theory of memory, which hypothesizes that information is retained in long-term memory in two forms: visual and verbal. . This theory predicts that information represented both visually and verbally is recalled better than information represented only one way. For example, you remember a face better if you also know a name, and you remember a name better if you can connect it to a face.

Parallel distributed processing model based on the idea that information is processed simultaneously in the three parts of the memory system, each part operating on the same information at the same time. For example, when reading this paragraph, you are not looking at individual letters, forming them into words and meanings, and then working with them in short-term memory to file them in long-term memory. Instead, you are immediately using information in your long-term memory to interpret the words and meanings.

Connectionist models Theories proposing that knowledge is stored in the brain in a network of connections, not in systems of rules or in individual bits of information

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Information Processing and Cognitive Theories of Learning

This chapter describes how information is received and processed in the mind, how memory and loss of memory work, and how teachers can help students understand and remember critical information, skills, and ideas. This chapter also presents cognitive theories of learning, theories that relate to processes that go on within the minds of learners, and means of helping students use their minds more effectively to learn, remember, and use knowledge.

Information constantly enters our minds through our senses. Most of this information is almost immediately discarded, and we may never even be aware of much of it. Some is held in our memories for a short time and then forgotten.

Information processing theory: Cognitive theory of learning that describes the processing, storage, and retrieval of knowledge in the mind. Sensory register: Component of the memory system in which information is received and held for very short periods of time. The first component of the memory system that incoming information meets is the sensory register. . Sensory registers receive large amounts of information from each of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste)  and hold it for a very short time, no more than a couple of seconds. If nothing happens to information held in a sensory register, it is rapidly lost

The existence of sensory registers has two important educational implications. First, people must pay attention to information if they are to retain it. Second, it takes time to bring all the information seen in a moment into consciousness. For example, if students are bombarded with too much information at once and are not told which aspects of the information they should pay attention to, they may have difficulty learning any of the information at all.

Perception: A person's interpretation of stimuli. Perception of stimuli is not as straightforward as reception of stimuli. Instead, it involves mental interpretation and is influenced by our mental state, past experience, knowledge, motivations, and many other factors.

Attention: Active focus on certain stimuli to the exclusion of others. When teachers say to students, "Pay attention" or "Lend me your ears," they are using the words pay and lend appropriately. Like money, attention is a limited resource

There are several ways to gain students' attention, all of which go under the general heading of arousing student interest. One way is to use cues that indicate "This is important." Some teachers raise or lower their voices to signal that they are about to impart critical information. Others use gestures, repetition, or body position to communicate the same message. Increase the emotional content of material. Some publications accomplish this by choosing very emotional words. Unusual, inconsistent, or surprising stimuli also attract attention. For example, science teachers often introduce lessons with a demonstration or magic trick to engage student curiosity. Informing students that what follows is important to them will catch their attention. "This will be on tomorrow’s test.”

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HOW HAS SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY CONTRIBUTED TO OUR UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN LEARNING?

Learning theory that emphasizes not only reinforcement but also the effects of cues on thought and of thought on action.

Modeling: Imitation of others' behavior.

Observational learning: Learning by observation and imitation of others. 

1. Attentional Phase: The first phase in observational learning is paying attention students pay attention to role models who are attractive popular. Ss pay attention to successful, ideal models.
2.  Retention Phase: Once the Ts have Ss’ attention, it’s time to model the behavior that they want Ss to imitate. Exp: T show how to write A, and Ss imitate T while writing A themselves. 
3. Reproduction Phase: Ss try to match their behavior to match to the model’s.  
4. Motivational Phase: Ss will imitate the model because doing so will increase their own chances to be reinforced. Ss pay attention to the model, practice it, reproduce it because they have learned that this is what the teacher likes and they want to please the teacher. When the Ss make a recognizable A, the teacher says; “nice work”

Vicarious learning

Learning based on observation of the consequences of others' behavior. Classroom teachers use the principle of vicarious learning all the time. When one student is fooling around, teachers often single out others who are working well

Self-Regulated Learning

Bandura (1997) hypothesized that people observing their own behavior, judge it against their own standards, and reinforce or punish themselves self-regulation Rewarding or punishing one's own behavior themselves. Students can be taught to use self-regulation strategies, and they can be reminded to do so in a variety of contexts so that self-regulation becomes a habit. For example students might be asked to set goals for the amount of time they expect to study each evening and to record whether or not they meet their goals.

Meichenbaum's Model of Self-Regulated Learning

Ss can be taught to monitor and regulate their own behavior. Self-regulated learning strategies of this kind are often called cognitive behavior modification. For example, Meichenbaum (1977) developed a strategy in which students are trained to say to themselves, "What is my problem? What is my plan? Am I using my plan? How did I do?"

Cognitive Behavior Modification

Procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive principles for changing one's own behavior by means of self-talk and self-instruction.

The steps involved in self-instruction are described by Meichenbaum (1977) as follows;

1. An  adult model performs a task while talking  to self out loud  (cognitive modeling). 
2. The child performs the same task under the direction of the model's instructions (overt external guidance) 
3. The child performs the task while instructing self aloud (overt self-guidance). 
4. Child whispers the instructions to self as he or she goes through the task. (faded, overt self-guidance). 
5. The child performs the tasks while guiding his or her performance via private speech (covert self-instruction).

Self-Reinforcement Drabman, Spitalnik, and O'Leary (1973) designed and evaluated a classic procedure to teach students to regulate their own behavior. They asked teachers to rate student behaviors each day and reinforce students when they earned high ratings. Then they changed the program: They asked the students to guess what rating the teacher had given them. The students were reinforced for guessing correctly. Finally, the reinforcers were gradually removed. The students' behavior improved under the reinforcement and guessing conditions, and it remained at its improved level long after the program was ended. The authors explained that students who were taught to match the teacher's ratings developed their own standards for appropriate behavior and reinforced themselves for meeting those standards.

Strengths and Limitations of Behavioral Learning Theories

It is important to recognize, however, that behavioral learning theories are limited in scope. With the exception of social learning theorists, behavioral learning theorists focus almost exclusively on observable behavior. Less visible learning processes, such as concept formation, learning from text, problem solving, and thinking, are difficult to observe directly and have therefore been studied less often by behavioral learning theorists. These processes fall more into the domain of cognitive learning. Social learning theory, which is a direct outgrowth of behavioral learning theories, helps to bridge the gap between the behavioral and cognitive perspectives. Behavioral and cognitive theories of learning are often posed as competing, opposite models. There are indeed specific areas in which these theories take contradictory positions. However, it is more accurate to see them as complementary rather than competitive that is, as tackling different problems.

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PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIORAL LEARNING

• the role of consequences
• rein forcers
• punishers
• immediacy of consequences
• shaping
• Extinction
• schedules of reinforcement
• Maintenance and the role of antecedents

The role of Consequences

Pleasurable consequences strengthen behavior; unpleasant consequences weaken it. In other words, pleasurable consequences increase the frequency with which an individual engages in a behavior, whereas unpleasant consequences reduce the frequency of a behavior. If students enjoy reading books, they will probably read more often. If they find stories boring or are unable to concentrate, they may read less often, choosing other activities instead. "pleasurable consequences are called reinforcers; unpleasant consequences are called punishers.

Reinfcorcers

A reinforcer is defined as any consequence that strengthens (that is, increases the frequency of) a behavior. (Effectiveness of the behavior must be demonstrated). Candy cannot be reinforcer some children since they may not like it. No reward can be assumed to be a reinforcer for everyone under all conditions.

Primary and Secondary Reinforces:

Primary reinforcers satisfy basic human needs. Some examples are food, water, security, warmth, and sex. Secondary reinforcers are reinforcers that acquire their value by being associated with primary reinforcers or other well-established secondary reinforcers. For example, money has no value to a young child until the child learns that money can be used to buy things that are themselves primary or secondary reinforcers. Grades have little value to students unless  their parents notice and value good grades, and parents' praise is of value because it is associated with love, warmth, security, and other reinforcers. Money and grades are examples of secondary reinforcers because they have no value in themselves but have been associated with primary reinforcers or with other well-established secondary reinforcers.

Secondary Reinforcers have three basic categories: 

1. Social reinforcers  (praise, smiles, hugs, or attention)
2. Activity reinforcers (such as access to toys, games, or fun activities)
3. Token (or symbolic) reinforcers(such as money, grades, stars, or points)

Positive and Negative Reinforcers

Positive reinforce is pleasurable consequence given to strengthen behavior. Negative reinforcer is release from an unpleasant situation, given to strengthen behavior When a teacher says, "If you get an A on tomorrow's test you won't have to do home work the rest of the week," she's using negative reinforcement (escape from an unpleasant consequence, assuming homework is)

Premack Principle: Rule stating that enjoyable activities can be used to reinforce participation in less enjoyable activities. "As soon as you finish your work, you may go outside" or "Clean up your art project, and then I will read you a story."

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Reinforcers

Intrinsic reinforcers:  Behaviors that a person  enjoys engaging in for their  own sake, without any  other reward. People like to draw, read, sing, play games, or swim for no reason other than the fun of doing it

Extrinsic reinforcers: Praise or rewards given to motivate people to engage in behavior that they might not engage in without them.

Practical Reinforcers

Self-reinforcement: Students may be taught to praise themselves, give themselves a mental pat on the back, check off progress on a form, give themselves a short break, or otherwise reinforce themselves for completing a task or staying out of trouble.

Praise: Phrases such as "Good job,"  "Way to go," "I knew you could do it,"

Attention: Listening, nodding, or moving closer may provide a child with the positive attention she or he is seeking.

Grades and recognition: Grades and recognition (e. g., certificates of accomplishment)

Call home: Calling home or sending a note to child’s parents to recognize success can be a powerful reinforce.

Privileges:  Children can earn free time, access to special equipment (e.g., soccer balls), or special roles (such as running errands or distributing papers)

Activity reinforcers: On the basis of achieving pre-established standards, students can earn free time, videos, games, or access to other fun activities.

Tangible reinforcers: Children may earn points for achievement or good behavior that they can exchange for small toys, erasers, pencils, marbles, comic books, stickers, and so on.

Food: Raisins, fruit, peanuts, or other healthy snacks  can be used as reinforcers.

Punishers

Punishment: Unpleasant consequences used to weaken behavior.

Presentation punishment: An aversive stimulus following a behavior, used to decrease the chances that the behavior will occur again.

Aversive stimulus: An unpleasant consequence that a person tries to avoid or escape.

Removal punishment: Withdrawal of a pleasant consequence that is reinforcing a behavior, designed to decrease the chances that the behavior will recur. Examples include loss of a privilege, having to stay in during recess, or having to stay after school. One frequently used form of removal punishment in classrooms is time out, in which a student who misbehaves is required to sit in the corner or in the hall for several minutes.

Timeout: Procedure of removing a student from a situation in which misbehavior was being reinforced.

Unless an unpleasant consequence reduces the frequency of the behavior it follows, it may not be a punisher.

Immediacy of Consequences

One very important principle of behavioral learning theories is that consequences that follow behaviors closely in time affect behavior far more than delayed consequences do

Shaping

Immediacy of reinforcement is important to teaching, but so is the decision as to what to reinforce. The teaching of a new skill or behavior by means of reinforcement for small steps toward the desired goal. The term shaping is used in behavioral learning theories to refer to the teaching  of new skills or behaviors by reinforcing learners for approaching the desired final behavior.

Extinction

Reinforcers strengthen behavior but what happens when reinforcers are withdrawn? Eventually, the behavior will be weakened, and ultimately, it will disappear. This process is called extinction of a previously learned behavior.

Extinction burst: The increase in levels of a behavior in the early stages of extinction

Schedules of Reinforcement

The frequency and predictability of reinforcement

Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule: Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a fixed number of behaviors. One common schedule of reinforcement is the fixed-ratio (FR) schedule, in which a reinforcer is given after a fixed number of behaviors. For ex-ample, a teacher might say, "As soon as you finish ten problems, you may go outside."

Variable-ratio (VR) schedule Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable number of behaviors.

Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a constant amount of time.

 Variable-interval schedule: Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable amount of time.

Maintenance

Continuation of behavior. Poorly behaved students  may need careful, systematic reinforcement  for doing schoolwork. After a while, however, they will find out that doing school work pays off in grades, in parental approval, in ability to understand what is going on in class, and in knowledge.

Role of Antecedents

The stimuli that precede a behavior also play an important role. Antecedent stimuli, events that precede a behavior, are also known as cues, because they inform us what behavior will be reinforced and/or what behavior will be punished. Discrimination is the use of cues, signals, or information to know when behavior is likely to be reinforced.(Exp: Observing the best time to ask for a raise from your boss).

Generalization:  Carryover of behaviors, skills, or concepts from one setting or task to another. Usually, when a classroom management program is successfully introduced in one setting, students' behaviors do not automatically improve in other settings. Instead, students learn to discriminate among settings.

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